Dashnaiv Peptides
Compounds·repair & anti inflammatory·alpha-MSH C-terminal tripeptide; anti-inflammatory, receptor unclear

KPV peptide: what the animal studies show, why no human dose exists, and how it compares

What 138 indexed publications and 0 randomized trials actually state about kpv, sentence by sentence, each tied to its source and labeled by the kind of evidence it is.

Animal, preclinical Reviewed 26 sources Updated

At a glance

Evidence availability
Human clinical evidence
Strongest tier in the indexed literature
Indexed publications
138
Europe PMC, title or abstract, 2026-09-14
Human studies in ledger
0
0 randomized; study count, not efficacy proof
Approval
none found
no registered development programme
Routes reported
oral, topical
from studies in this ledger
Studied in
Humans, Mice, Rabbits, Rats
19 primary studies in the evidence table
Reviewed by Adam Mirando, PharmD, on . What changed

What KPV is and how it acts

KPV is a peptide in the repair & anti inflammatory class (alpha-MSH C-terminal tripeptide; anti-inflammatory, receptor unclear). Europe PMC indexes 138 publications naming it or a listed alias in a title or abstract, including 0 randomized controlled trials and 0 clinical trials of any design, as of . The strongest evidence tier in that literature is animal studies only, with no indexed human study.

This page reports what those studies state, sentence by sentence, with each statement tied to its source and labeled by the kind of evidence it is. It does not recommend use, and it does not translate study doses into anything personal.

What the evidence level means

Publication counts show what is indexed, not how strong the evidence is. The ledger below separates human clinical records from preclinical, analytical, and in-vitro work.

Human clinical studies in this ledger00 randomized · 0 other human clinical
Evidence strengthNot yet assessedSeparate from evidence availability
Efficacy signalNot yet assessedRead the study result, not the tier alone

Interpretation boundary: An indexed publication count is a discovery measure. It does not establish efficacy, safety, approval, or a personal treatment plan.

KPV in two minutes

What it is. The three-amino-acid tail of the pigmentation hormone α-MSH, which carries the hormone's anti-inflammatory activity without its other effects.

What the research actually shows. 138 indexed publications, all animal and cell work: colitis models in mice, skin and eye inflammation, and recently fat tissue. No human study exists. The gut-health reputation rests on a 2008 mouse study in which oral KPV reduced chemically induced colitis.

Status. Not approved anywhere; not named on the WADA list.

Where the evidence is thinnest. Everything in people: absorption, dose, effect and safety.

Editorial synthesis Written from general pharmacology, the development record and what is commonly reported; not a cited finding. Cited findings on this page carry their own tier.

How KPV is thought to work

Written from general pharmacology and the development record, and marked as editorial synthesis; the measurements behind it are quoted in the biomarker section.

  • KPV is the tripeptide lysine-proline-valine, the last three amino acids of alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH 11-13). The parent hormone is best known for skin pigmentation; the fragment keeps the hormone's anti-inflammatory activity without its pigmenting or appetite effects, and it is small enough to be taken up by the intestinal peptide transporter PepT1, which is how the 2008 mouse colitis study explained an effect after oral dosing.Editorial synthesis
    Editorial synthesis from general knowledge
  • In cells and animals it reduces inflammatory signalling, damping NF-κB activation and lowering interleukin-6, interleukin-1β and TNF in gut, skin and eye models. Which receptor, if any, it acts through is unsettled: it does not bind melanocortin receptors the way α-MSH does, and direct entry into cells is the leading explanation. The 2026 mouse work in this record extends the story to fat tissue in a diet-induced obesity model.Editorial synthesis
    Editorial synthesis from general knowledge
  • There is no human study of KPV of any kind. The two human rows in the evidence table are experiments on human cells. Every statement about KPV's effects in people, including the gut-health claims that dominate its marketing, is an extrapolation from mice and cell cultures.Editorial synthesis
    Editorial synthesis from general knowledge

What did the studies find?

Reported outcomes in mice and cells, not benefits in people. No human study exists. One row per primary study in this record's ledger. Fields are read from each paper's indexing and abstract. "Analytical method" marks papers about detecting or measuring the compound rather than about its effects.

19 primary studies in this record's ledger, strongest evidence first. A dash means the abstract did not state the value.
StudyDesignnSpeciesDoseRouteDurationReported outcomeTier
An 2026 Animal study — Mice—oral— In addition, KPV decreased the expression of key adipogenic markers, including peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) and fatty acid synthase (FAS). Animal, preclinical
Cheng 2026 Animal study — Mice——— In colitis mice, the KPV-based conjugate (proKPV) achieved a 3.8-fold greater colonic accumulation than free KPV, with enhanced efficacy even at a 20-fold lower dose. Animal, preclinical
Zeng 2026 Animal study — Mice——— In healthy melanocytes, NLRP3 expression is upregulated when subjected to oxidative stress, along with an increase in the E3 ligase β-TrCP1, which enhances the K27-linked ubiquitination of NLRP3 and further strengthens… Animal, preclinical
Zhang 2024 Animal study — Mice——— In vivo and in vitro, KPV-RAPA NPs significantly inhibit VC in mice compared to the other treatment groups. Animal, preclinical
Zhang 2024 Animal study — Mice——— Furthermore, treating by NPs revealed a notable reduction of the expressions of CD68 and CD3, restoring the expression levels of tight junction proteins (Claudin-5, Occludin-1, and ZO-1) were significantly restored,… Animal, preclinical
Berr 2023 Animal study — Mice——— KPV -/- cells have reduced glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) levels, resulting in the accumulation of toxic lipid peroxides and increased ferroptosis. Animal, preclinical
Zhao 2022 Animal study — Rats——— Moreover, the alleviating effect of KPV on rats with TNBS-induced colitis was significantly improved by PMSP after intracolonic administration. Animal, preclinical
Shao 2021 Animal study — Rats—oral— Treatment with KPV@PPP_2%E hydrogel greatly improved the food intake and body weight recovery of rats with chemotherapy-induced oral mucositis. Animal, preclinical
Sun 2021 Animal study — Rats——— Besides, the KPV/SH-PGA hydrogel treatment prevented the colon shortening of TNBS-infused rats and decreased the colonic myeloperoxidase level. Animal, preclinical
Xiao 2017 Animal study — Mice—oral— — Animal, preclinical
Viennois 2016 Animal study — Mice——— When administered to PepT1-KO mice, KPV did not trigger any of the inhibitory effect on tumorigenesis observed in WT mice. Animal, preclinical
Dalmasso 2008 Animal study — Mice—oral— Nanomolar concentrations of KPV inhibit the activation of NF-kappaB and MAP kinase inflammatory signaling pathways, and reduce pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion. Animal, preclinical
Luger 2007 Animal study — Mice——— — Animal, preclinical
Bonfiglio 2006 Animal study — Rabbits—topical4 days The mean percent epithelial defect remaining each time was significantly smaller in animals treated with KPV or SP in comparison to controls. Animal, preclinical
Montagnon 1981 Animal study — ———— As the increasing shortage of monkeys is a reality, the application of an alternative cell substrate for large-scale production of Killed Poliomyelitis Vaccine (KPV) was studied. Animal, preclinical
Jeong 2025 In vitro study — Humans——— — Mechanistic, in vitro
Songok 2018 In vitro study — ———— In a model system, the ε-amine of Ts-Lys-OMe was reductively alkylated with a glucose derivative to afford a dihydroxylated piperidine in place of the amine. Mechanistic, in vitro
Zeng 2017 In vitro study — Humans——— — Mechanistic, in vitro
Wang 2012 In vitro study — ———— — Mechanistic, in vitro

KPV doses in studies

Every figure here was given to mice or cells. No human dose exists.

ModelRouteDurationFinding
Mouse colitis (2008)Oral, in drinking water or gavageDaysReduced colitis severity; uptake via PepT1
Mouse colitis, conjugates and nanoparticles (2024 to 2026)Oral formulations designed to reach the colonDaysGreater colonic accumulation than free KPV; reduced inflammation
Mouse diet-induced obesity (2026)OralWeeksReduced adipogenic markers
Human cell culturesMicromolar concentrationsHoursReduced inflammatory signalling

Figures for this compound circulate on forums and vendor pages. None has been tested in a human study, so none is reproduced here; the table above holds every dose a study actually administered.

Editorial synthesis Written from general pharmacology, the development record and what is commonly reported; not a cited finding. Cited findings on this page carry their own tier.

Adverse events and frequency

Events and their frequency as each study reported them, with the denominator where the abstract gives one.

  • Animal study mice 2008 Animal, preclinical
    Furthermore, oral administration of KPV reduces the incidence of DSS- and TNBS-induced colitis indicated by a decrease in pro-inflammatory cytokine expression.
    Source pmid-18061177 · quoted verbatim from the abstract

Who KPV is discussed for, and the cautions that recur

The interest. Inflammatory bowel conditions, eczema and psoriasis, and diffuse inflammation, because those are the mouse models with results and because oral dosing is possible.

  • Inflammatory bowel disease under treatment. Swapping or adding an untested peptide to a managed condition is the specific risk communities discuss least.
  • Melanocortin biology. The parent hormone affects pigmentation, appetite and sexual function; KPV is reported not to, but that reassurance comes from animal work.
  • Pregnancy, children, immune suppression. No data of any kind.
  • Product identity. An unregulated tripeptide sold by mass; a certificate of analysis is the only check.

Editorial synthesis Written from general pharmacology, the development record and what is commonly reported; not a cited finding. Cited findings on this page carry their own tier.

Biomarkers measured in studies

Laboratory and clinical measures the studies report tracking, including which hormones did and did not change.

  • Animal study mice 2026 Animal, preclinical
    Specifically, treatment with 100 μg/mL KPV reduced Oil Red O staining intensity by approximately 55% and intracellular triglyceride content by approximately 38% compared with the MDI-treated group.
    Source pmid-42585803 · quoted verbatim from the abstract
  • Animal study mice 2023 Animal, preclinical
    Finally, luciferase-expressing KPV +/+ , KPV -/- , or KPV Y117L cells were implanted into the flanks of athymic mice to track cancer metastasis to the lung.
    Source pmid-37161053 · quoted verbatim from the abstract
  • Animal study rats 2021 Animal, preclinical
    Treatment with KPV@PPP_2%E hydrogel greatly improved the food intake and body weight recovery of rats with chemotherapy-induced oral mucositis.
    Source pmid-34846053 · quoted verbatim from the abstract
  • Animal study rats 2021 Animal, preclinical
    The KPV/SH-PGA hydrogel presented higher elastic modulus ( G ') than the corresponding viscous modulus ( G ″) at 0.01-10 Hz, exhibiting good mechanical stability.
    Source pmid-34547895 · quoted verbatim from the abstract
  • Animal study mice 2017 Animal, preclinical
    Oral administration of HA-KPV-NPs encapsulated in a hydrogel (chitosan/alginate) exhibited a much stronger capacity to prevent mucosa damage and downregulate TNF-α, thus they showed a much better therapeutic efficacy against UC in a mouse model, compared with a KPV-NP/hydrogel system.
    Source pmid-28143741 · quoted verbatim from the abstract
  • Animal study mice 2008 Animal, preclinical
    Human intestinal epithelial cells Caco2-BBE, HT29-Cl.19A, and human T cells (Jurkat) were stimulated with pro-inflammatory cytokines in the present or absence of KPV.
    Source pmid-18061177 · quoted verbatim from the abstract

Reported interactions

Sentences in which the compound is studied alongside another agent. Read the quotation: the word interaction can also be statistical.

  • Animal study rats 2022 Animal, preclinical
    KPV (Lys-Pro-Val) as a model drug was easily captured by PMSP through electrostatic interactions, thus retaining its bioactivity for a longer time under high temperature conditions.
    Source pmid-35245681 · quoted verbatim from the abstract
  • In vitro study humans 2017 Mechanistic, in vitro
    The diagnostic fluorescent probe bestows a specific receptor-targeted interaction with PepT1 through the KPV moiety, possessing several beneficial characteristics, such as efficient long emission, low photobleaching, negligible cytotoxicity, and high cytocompatibility in living cells.
    Source pmid-28349696 · quoted verbatim from the abstract

Reported timelines

Onset, peak and duration figures as each study reported them.

  • Animal study rats 2021 Animal, preclinical
    Only 30% of KPV was released from the KPV/SH-PGA hydrogel within 20 min, followed by a sustained-release behavior.
    Source pmid-34547895 · quoted verbatim from the abstract

What is measured over time, and what is not

In mice, colitis scores change over days of dosing. Nothing has been measured in people over any period, and the reports of gut symptom change over weeks that circulate are uncontrolled self-report for conditions that fluctuate on their own.

Editorial synthesis Written from general pharmacology, the development record and what is commonly reported; not a cited finding. Cited findings on this page carry their own tier.

Study durations

Treatment and follow-up periods as stated in each abstract.

  • Animal study rabbits 2006 Animal, preclinical
    Durations stated: 4 days
    Rabbits were topically treated with KPV 1, 5 or 10 mg/ml (30 microl), two drops four times in a day, for 4 days, starting immediately after corneal abrasion, while control animals received topical phosphate-buffered saline as vehicle.
    Source pmid-16965771 · quoted verbatim from the abstract, emphasis added

Oral and other routes in the studies

Routes of administration named in each study.

  • Animal study mice 2026 Animal, preclinical
    administration by oral route reported
    In addition, in a high-fat diet-induced obesity mouse model, oral administration of KPV alleviated body weight gain, white adipose tissue expansion, liver mass increase, and obesity-associated dyslipidemia, including elevated plasma total cholesterol levels.
    Source pmid-42585803 · quoted verbatim from the abstract
  • Animal study rats 2021 Animal, preclinical
    administration by oral route reported
    Treatment with KPV@PPP_2%E hydrogel greatly improved the food intake and body weight recovery of rats with chemotherapy-induced oral mucositis.
    Source pmid-34846053 · quoted verbatim from the abstract
  • Animal study mice 2017 Animal, preclinical
    administration by oral route reported
    Oral administration of HA-KPV-NPs encapsulated in a hydrogel (chitosan/alginate) exhibited a much stronger capacity to prevent mucosa damage and downregulate TNF-α, thus they showed a much better therapeutic efficacy against UC in a mouse model, compared with a KPV-NP/hydrogel system.
    Source pmid-28143741 · quoted verbatim from the abstract
  • Animal study mice 2008 Animal, preclinical
    administration by oral route reported
    Furthermore, oral administration of KPV reduces the incidence of DSS- and TNBS-induced colitis indicated by a decrease in pro-inflammatory cytokine expression.
    Source pmid-18061177 · quoted verbatim from the abstract
  • Animal study rabbits 2006 Animal, preclinical
    administration by topical route reported
    This study was undertaken to investigate the effects of topical administration of the COOH-terminal tripeptide sequence of alpha-MSH (alpha-MSH(11-13), KPV) on corneal epithelial wound healing in rabbits and the possible role of nitric oxide (NO) in these effects.
    Source pmid-16965771 · quoted verbatim from the abstract

What people report outside the literature

What circulates in user communities and clinic marketing, reported so a reader knows the figures and their origin. None of it has been tested in a trial, and none of it is a suggestion.

  • KPV circulates for gut inflammation, skin conditions and general anti-inflammatory use, by mouth, by injection, as a nasal spray and as a cream. Reported effects are reduced gut symptoms and calmer skin; reported side effects are few and mostly at injection sites. None of this comes from a human study, because none exists. Figures for this compound circulate on forums and vendor pages. None has been tested in a human study, so none is reproduced here; the table above holds every dose a study actually administered.Editorial synthesis
    Editorial synthesis from general knowledge
Method note · shared across compounds

Reconstitution mathematics

Lyophilised peptide is supplied as a mass in a vial and dissolved in a stated volume of diluent. Two figures follow from that and nothing else:

  • Concentration = mass in vial ÷ diluent volume. A 5 mg vial in 2 mL is 2.5 mg/mL, or 2,500 mcg/mL.
  • Volume for a given mass = that mass ÷ concentration. 250 mcg at 2,500 mcg/mL is 0.1 mL. On a U-100 insulin syringe, where 1 mL is 100 units, that is 10 units.

Study doses on this page are quoted as published, in the units the authors used. Converting between mcg, mg and IU, or between a mass and a syringe volume, is arithmetic; deciding a mass is not, and this page does not do it. The reconstitution calculator performs the conversion with the formula shown.

Method note · shared across compounds

Reading a certificate of analysis

A certificate of analysis is a laboratory report on one batch. Reading it means checking four things in order.

  1. Identity. Mass spectrometry should report an observed molecular mass matching the peptide's theoretical mass within the instrument's stated tolerance. A certificate with no mass spectrometry, or one that lists only the expected value, has not confirmed identity.
  2. Purity. HPLC purity is the area of the main peak as a share of all peaks, at a stated wavelength. It says nothing about what the other peaks are, and it is not a measure of quantity.
  3. Quantity. Net peptide content, by amino acid analysis or UV, is the fraction of the vial's mass that is peptide rather than counter-ions and water. A 5 mg vial at 80% net content holds 4 mg of peptide, and every concentration figure above changes accordingly.
  4. Provenance. The batch number on the certificate should match the vial, the laboratory should be named and independent of the seller, and the test date should be recent.

This page rates no supplier and links to none. It describes how to read the document.

Method note · shared across compounds

Equipment described in studies

Published human studies of injectable peptides report the same small set of materials: single-use insulin syringes with fixed needles, most often U-100 with 29 to 31 gauge needles; bacteriostatic water or sterile water for injection as diluent, with the choice stated in the methods; alcohol swabs; and refrigerated storage of reconstituted solution. Animal studies more often report intraperitoneal or intragastric administration and state the vehicle used. Where a study in this record's ledger names its materials or vehicle, that sentence appears under storage or routes above; where it does not, nothing is assumed here.

Storage and handling

Powder refrigerated or frozen away from light; reconstituted solution refrigerated and used within about four weeks; capsules as labelled. Discard cloudy or discoloured solution.

Editorial synthesis Written from general pharmacology, the development record and what is commonly reported; not a cited finding. Cited findings on this page carry their own tier.

Common mistakes in how KPV is discussed

  • Reading the 2008 mouse study as a human gut trial. It is the origin of the oral-dosing idea and it was in mice.
  • Calling it a melanocortin agonist. It does not bind those receptors; that is the point of the fragment.
  • Treating "anti-inflammatory" as a clinical outcome. Lower cytokines in a dish or a mouse is a mechanism, not a result in a person.
  • Assuming the four-peptide healing stack was studied. None of its combinations has been.

Editorial synthesis Written from general pharmacology, the development record and what is commonly reported; not a cited finding. Cited findings on this page carry their own tier.

KPV vs BPC-157, TB-500 and GHK-Cu

CompoundMechanism (proposed)Human evidenceStatus
KPVα-MSH fragment; anti-inflammatory, receptor unclearNoneNot approved
BPC-157Gastric-protein fragment; nitric oxide, growth factors3 uncontrolled pilotsNot approved; FDA compounding Category 2; WADA S0
TB-500Thymosin β4 fragment; actin bindingTrials of the parent proteinNot approved; WADA S2
GHK-CuCopper tripeptide; collagen, gene expressionTopical trialsCosmetic ingredient; not a drug

Class records: BPC-157, TB-500, GHK-Cu; the repair and anti-inflammatory class page lists them together.

Editorial synthesis Written from general pharmacology, the development record and what is commonly reported; not a cited finding. Cited findings on this page carry their own tier.

Other compounds in its class

Same class in the registry: BPC-157, GHK-Cu, TB-500. Each row shows what that compound's own record states; nothing is inferred across rows.

4 compounds in the repair & anti inflammatory class. Each row states what that compound's own record says; nothing is inferred across rows.
CompoundTierPublicationsRCTsRecord
KPV Animal, preclinical 138 0 draft
BPC-157 Observational, human 228 0 draft
GHK-Cu Human clinical trial 169 1 draft
TB-500 Human clinical trial 1,257 7 draft

Studied in combination

Whether any indexed study tested KPV together with the compounds it is commonly combined with. A count of zero is the finding, not a gap in this page.

Regulatory status

Registry facts only. Jurisdiction-level status, compounding categories and sport prohibitions need their own cited documents before they appear here.

  • Not approved anywhere, for any route. Sold as a research chemical and, topically, in some cosmetic products. It is not named on the WADA Prohibited List. Its status on FDA's compounding nomination lists should be checked against the live list.Editorial synthesis
    Editorial synthesis from general knowledge · primary document to be added to the ledger

Open questions and limitations

What is genuinely unknown, stated plainly. A missing field is not evidence that the outcome is safe, effective, or established.

  • No study in this record's ledger reports doses used for KPV.
  • No study in this record's ledger reports weight-normalized doses for KPV.
  • No study in this record's ledger reports dose-escalation schedules for KPV.
  • No study in this record's ledger reports exclusion criteria for KPV.
  • No randomized controlled trial of KPV is indexed in Europe PMC.
  • Whether any finding about KPV holds in humans is untested.

Questions people ask

What are the side effects of KPV?

Unknown: no human study exists. Community reports describe few effects beyond injection-site reactions.

What is KPV peptide?

The last three amino acids of the hormone α-MSH, lysine-proline-valine. It keeps the hormone's anti-inflammatory activity and is studied in mice and cells for gut, skin and eye inflammation.

What does KPV do?

In mice and cell cultures it lowers inflammatory signalling and reduces chemically induced colitis. No human study has measured any effect.

Has KPV been tested in humans?

No. The human entries in the evidence table are cell experiments. There is no human trial, pilot or case series.

Is there a KPV dose?

No human dose has been studied. Figures circulate online; none has been tested, and this page does not reproduce them.

Can KPV be taken orally?

In mice, yes: a 2008 study found oral KPV reduced colitis, taken up by the intestinal transporter PepT1. Whether oral KPV does anything in people is unknown.

What are the side effects of KPV?

Unknown. No human study exists. Community reports describe few effects beyond injection-site reactions.

Is KPV FDA approved?

No, not for any route. It is a research chemical and, topically, a cosmetic ingredient in some products.

Does KPV affect skin colour like α-MSH?

Animal work says no: the fragment does not bind the melanocortin receptors that drive pigmentation. That has not been confirmed in people.

Is KPV good for gut health?

In mouse colitis models it reduces inflammation. In people, untested.

KPV vs BPC-157: what is the difference?

Different origins and mechanisms: KPV is a hormone fragment acting on inflammatory signalling; BPC-157 is a gastric-protein fragment acting on nitric oxide and growth factors. BPC-157 has three uncontrolled human pilots; KPV has none.

Is KPV banned in sport?

It is not named on the WADA Prohibited List.

How should KPV be stored?

Powder refrigerated or frozen; solution refrigerated and used within about four weeks; capsules as labelled.

What receptor does KPV act on?

Unsettled. It does not bind melanocortin receptors; direct uptake into cells via PepT1 is the leading explanation.

Is KPV in the healing stack with BPC-157, TB-500 and GHK-Cu?

Communities combine them. No study has tested any of those combinations.

How many KPV studies exist?

138 indexed publications, all animal and cell work; 17 primary studies are tabulated on this page.

Why is KPV called a gut peptide?

Because the best-known study reduced colitis in mice after oral dosing. That is one mouse study.

Sources

Full citations. Every claim above links to one of these by its id.

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Reference card

Reference card · generated /compounds/kpv
Compound
KPV, repair and anti inflammatory
Evidence tier
Animal, preclinical
Indexed publications
138 · 0 RCTs · 0 other clinical trials
Approval
no registered development programme found
Routes reported
oral, topical
Reviewed
Adam Mirando, PharmD,

Study figures are as published in each source and are not recommendations. Print or save this card with its date.

Last reviewed and what changed

Newest first. These are the record's own revision dates, and the same dates feed the sitemap.

  1. · Reviewed by Adam Mirando, PharmD, on 2026-09-25.
  2. · Reverted 1 of those label changes after tightening the rule: 'urine' had matched inside 'murine' and 'screening' had matched a zebrafish drug screen. pmid-27458604 back to Animal study
  3. · Label correction: 1 evidence rows built from detection and doping-control papers carried study designs such as animal or in-vitro work. They are relabelled Analytical method, the label scripts/draft_claims.py has applied since the rule was added; these rows predate it. pmid-27458604 (Animal study -> Analytical method)
  4. · Written guide, FAQ to 16, mechanism, reported-use (no circulating figures reproduced) and regulatory editorial sections; intent-driven H1 and title.
  5. · Claims drafted extractively from 26 ledger sources by scripts/draft_claims.py: 20 claims, 19 evidence-table rows. Status researched -> draft.
  6. · Claims drafted extractively from 26 ledger sources by scripts/draft_claims.py: 28 claims, 19 evidence-table rows. Status researched -> draft.
  7. · Evidence fetched from Europe PMC and ChEMBL by scripts/fetch_evidence.py; claims not yet written.